外空法律秩序演进的多重悖论解构与中国方略The Deconstruction of Multiple Paradox of Legal Order Evolution in Outer Space and China's Proposal
吴晓丹
摘要(Abstract):
1979年《月球协定》之后再无外空条约,但外空法律秩序演进并没有停滞不前。外空活动迅猛发展背景下,国际组织、国家和非国家实体等渐次推动国内立法、软法和其他非正式规范的展开,外空规范由此发展成庞大的复杂体系,内容边界、适用范围和演进路径都超出甚至背离外空条约体系。因此,有必要以自由、和平与公平发展等基本价值解读外空法律秩序的演进特点、整体影响与深层原因,识别和审视此间蕴涵的结构性、根本性变革。为落实中国航天强国发展目标,整体与动态研究方法对于外空法律秩序的守正创新至关重要,亦能为建构具有中国主体意识的国际法学理论供给智慧。
关键词(KeyWords): 外空法律秩序;外空法行为主体;外空条约体系;外空软法;外空国内立法;外空非正式规范
基金项目(Foundation): 国家社科基金项目“人类命运共同体理念下开发外空资源国际法制度研究”(19BFX206)的阶段性成果
作者(Author): 吴晓丹
DOI: 10.13871/j.cnki.whuilr.2026.01.003
参考文献(References):
- [1]包括《外空条约》《营救协定》《责任公约》《登记公约》和《月球协定》。《外空条约》是基础性条约,其他条约确立不同领域的制度和原则。截至2024年12月31日,共有116个国家批准和加入《外空条约》,《营救协定》《责任公约》《登记公约》《月球协定》的当事国数量分别为100、101、75、17个。五个外空条约不是将国际法原则和规范简单适用于外层空间,而是针对外空活动的特殊性调整既有原则和规范并确立新的原则和规范,因此五个条约体系性构成国际法的一个分支。Manfred Lachs, The Law of Outer Space:An Experience in Contemporary Law-Making 11-28(Martinus Nijhoff 2010).
- [2]Dave Baiocchi&William Welser IV, The Democratization of Space, 3 Foreign Affairs 98-104(2015).
- [3]根据联合国外空物体登记册的统计,共有104个国家提交了外空物体信息,https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/spaceobjectregister/index.html, visited 26 October 2025.
- [4]经济合作与发展组织数据显示,2004年到2018年外空经济体量从1000亿美元激增至4000亿美元。OECD, The Space Economy in Figures:How Space Contributes to the Global Economy, 2019.世界经济论坛统计,2023年全球外空市场估值为6300亿美金,这与半导体行业的体量相当,2035年全球外空市场规模将达到1.8万亿美元。World Economy Forum Report, Space:the$1.8 Trillion Opportunity for Global Economic Growth, 2024.
- [1]Mathew Jenkins, The Militarisation and Weaponisation of Space:Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, in Thomas Hoerber et al.(eds.), Routledge Handbook of Space Policy 393-410(Routledge 2024).
- [2]即外空商业时代,国际法、国内法、非国家实体标准等多种规范的互动状态。Brain R. Israel, Space Governance 3.0, 3Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 715-718(2020).
- [3]Jessica L. West, Space Security Cooperation:Changing Dynamics, in Kai-Uwe Schrogl et al.(eds.), Handbook of Space Security:Policies, Applications and Programs 45-148(Springer 2020).
- [4]Namrata Goswami&Peter A. Garretson, Scramble for the Skies:The Great Power Competition to Control the Resources of Outer Space 1-38(Lexington Books 2020). Linda Dawson, The Politics and Perils of Space Exploration:Who Will Compete, Who Will Dominate? 1-22(Springer 2021).
- [1]截至2026年1月,《阿尔忒弥斯协定》签署国达到61个,https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/。国际月球科研站则有南非、白俄罗斯、哈萨克斯坦、尼加拉瓜、委内瑞拉等10余个合作国家(包括意向国)以及亚太空间合作组织等多个合作伙伴,https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758838/c10668120/content.html, visited 31 January 2026.
- [2]2011年以来,美国国会拨款年度法案的沃尔夫条款规定,非经国会和联邦调查局批准,NASA和白宫科技政策办公室不得将联邦资金用于中美外空合作。联邦预算是美国外空活动的首要资金来源,NASA是美国外空项目的最大甲方,扼住资金咽喉的沃尔夫条款基本覆盖两国所有实质性的合作,因此称其为中美外空合作禁令。
- [3]第一颗人造卫星发射后月余,联合国大会促请各国“确保经过外空的物体专为和平与科学用途”。联合国大会决议《一切军队及一切军备之调节、限制及均衡裁减;缔订关于裁减军备及禁止原子武器、氢武器及其他大规模毁灭武器之国际条约》,UNGA, Resolution 1148(XII), 14 November 1957, para.1.6.
- [4]Bin Cheng, Studies in International Space Law 514(Oxford University Press 1997).
- [5]Peter Martinez, Challenges for Ensuring the Security, Safety and Sustainability of Outer Space Activities, 2 Journal of Space Safety Engineering 65-68(2019).
- [6]U.S. National Space Policy, 11 May 1978, p. 2.
- [7]U.S. National Space Policy, 31 August 2006, pp.1-2.
- [8]Space Policy Directive-4, Establishment of the United States Space Force, 19 February 2019.
- [9]U.S. National Space Policy, 9 December 2020, p. 27.
- [10]Alezandra Brzozowski, NATO Braces for the New Space Age, 21 November 2019. https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/nato-braces-for-the-new-space-age, visited 26 October 2025.
- [11]Resolution Adopted on the Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the 10th Special Session, UNGA, Resolution S-10/2, 30 June1978, para.80.
- [1]第一个和过去五个大会决议为:Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, UNGA, Resolution 36/97, 9 December 1978;UNGA, Resolution 75/35, 7 December 2020;UNGA, Resolution 76/22, 6 December 2021; UNGA, Resolution 77/40, 7 December 2022; UNGA, Resolution 78/19, 6 December 2023; UNGA,Resolution 79/19, 9 December 2024.
- [2]例如,2020年、2019年、2018年、2017年、2016年、2014年、2013年、2012年、2011年、2010年这十个年份的赞成票数量分别是185、183、178、182、182、178、180、183、176和178,反对票只有美国和以色列。Voting Records of UN General Assembly Resolution, https://research.un.org/en/docs/find/voting, visited 26 October 2025.
- [3]UNGA, Resolution 45/55, 4 December 1990, para.5; UN, GA Resolution 65/68, 8 December 2010, para.2; UNGA, Resolution72/250, 24 December 2017, para.2; UNGA, Resolution 76/231, 24 December 2021, para.5(c); UNGA, Resolution 76/22, 6 December 2021;UNGA, Resolution 77/250, 9 January 2023, para.5; UNGA, Resolution 78/20, 4 December 2023, para.4; UNGA, Resolution 78/238, 28 December 2023, para.5.
- [4]Maureen Williams, Space Debris:The Academic World and the World of Practical Affairs, 44 Proceedings of the IISL Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 318(2001).
- [5]J. Zander, The Application of the Precautionary Principle in Practice:Comparative Dimensions 15(Cambridge University Press2010).
- [6]Elliot Reaven, The United States Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act:The Creation of Private Space Property Rights and the Omission of the Right to Freedom from Harmful Interference, 1 Washington University Law Review 233-259(2016).
- [7]尹玉海、林灿杰:《外空低轨巨型星座的治理困境破解——以有害干扰的磋商机制为视角》,《北京航空航天大学学报(社会科学版)》2026年第1期,第112-123页。
- [1]IADC Debris Mitigation Guidelines, IADC-02-01, Rev. 4, 2025. COPUOS Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines, UNGA, Res/62/217, 2010. COPUOS Long Term Sustainability Guidelines, UN Doc. A/74/20, Annex II, 2019. ISO, Space Debris Mitigation Requirements,24113, 2023.
- [2]Tina Hlimi, The Next Frontier:An Overview of the Legal and Environmental Implications of Near-Earth Asteroid Mining, 34Annals of Air and Space Law 447-449(2014).
- [3]Ram Jakhu, Legal Issues relating to the Global Public Interest in Outer Space, 32 Journal of Space Law 139(2006).
- [4]Stephan Hobe, Article I of Outer Space Treaty, in Stephan Hobe et al.(eds.), Cologne Commentary on Space Law 40(Carl Heymanns Verlag 2009).
- [5]Nathan Goldman, Transition of Confusion in the Law, in Daniel Papp&John McIntyre(eds.), International Space Policy:Legal, Economic, and Strategic Options for the Twentieth Century and Beyond 154(Quorum Books 1987).
- [6]Cristian van Eijk, Unstealing the Sky:Third World Equity in the Orbital Commons, 1 Air and Space Law 34(2022).
- [7]John Vogler, Global Commons Revisited, 3 Global Policy 61(2012).
- [1]OECD, OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms 228(2008). World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future 226(Oxford University Press 1987).
- [2]Hugo Grotius, Edited by James B. Scott, The Freedom of the Seas, or, the Rights which Belongs to the Dutch to Take Part in the East Indian Trade 28(Oxford University Press 1916).
- [3]Pauline Pic et al., Outer Space as a Global Commons:An Empirical Study of Space Arrangements, 1 International Journal of the Commons 288-301(2023).
- [4]John S. Lewis&Christopher F. Lewis, A Proposed International Legal Regime for the Era of Private Commercial Utilization of Space, 37 George Washington International Law Review 746(2005).
- [5]Ram S. Jakhu&Joseph Pelton, The International Legal Framework, in Ram S. Jakhu et al.(eds.), Space Mining and Its Regulation 113-130(Springer 2017).
- [6]Report of Bush President’s Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy, A Journey to Inspire, Innovate and Discover 9-33(U.S. Government Printing Office 2004).
- [7]2015 U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act, Section 402.
- [8]NASA, Artemis Accords, 13 October 2020, Sections of 10.2, 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.10, 11.11.
- [9]U.S. Presidential Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources, Sections1 and 2, 6 April 2020.
- [10]Stefania Paladini&Ingazio Castellucci, Sovereign States, Private Actors, and(National)Space Laws:A Rapidly Evolving Landscape, in Charles S. Cockell et al.(eds.), The Institutions of Extraterrestrial Liberty 266-383(Oxford University Press 2022).
- [1]The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group, Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resource Activities, 29 November 2019. Moon Village Association, Principles for Best Practice, Issue 1 of December2018 and Issue 2 of February 2020; Global Expert Group on Sustainable Lunar Activities, Recommended Framework and Key Elements for Peaceful and Sustainable Lunar Activities, January 2023. Space Generation Advisory Council, Lunar Governance Report:Effective and Adaptive Governance for a Lunar Ecosystem, 10 May 2021.
- [2]Working Paper Submitted by Luxembourg and the Netherlands, Building Block for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resources Activities, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/L.315, 3 February 2020. Working Paper Submitted by the Moon Village Association, Global Expert Group Report on Sustainable Lunar Activities, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2023/CRP.31, 20 March 2023. Space Generation Advisory Council,Input to the Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2023/CRP.26, 20 March 2023.
- [3]Ram S. Jakhu&Steven Freeland, McGill Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space:Volume I-Rules(McGill University Centre for Research in Air and Space Law 2022). Jack Beard&Dale Stephens, The Woomera Manual on the International Law of Military Space Operations(Oxford University Press 2024).
- [4]Marijn Janssen&Haiko van der Voort, Adaptive Governance:Towards a Stable, Accountable and Responsive Government, 1Government Information Quarterly 1-5(2016).
- [5]Erica Biber, Adaptive Management and the Future of Environmental Law, 46 Akron Law Review 933(2013).
- [6]Rossana Deplano, The Artemis Accords:Evolution or Revolution in International Space Law, 70 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 816(2021).
- [7]The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group, Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resource Activities, 29 November 2019, Introduction, para.2.
- [8]许丰娜:《外空资源开发利用国际规则的新发展与我国应对》,《武大国际法评论》2025年第2期,第77页。
- [9]Scot W. Anderson et al., The Development of Natural Resources in Outer Space, 51 Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law 10835-10842(2021). Michael Byers&Aaron Boley, Who Owns Outer Space?:International Law, Astrophysics, and the Sustainable Development of Space 131-132(Cambridge University Press 2023). Timiebi Aganaba, Deriving Meaning Through Treaty Interpretation or Is It Time for New Innovative Space Governance Instruments for Space Resources?, 2 Albany Law Review 424-427(2023).
- [1]Luxembourg Law of 20th July 2017 on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources, Article 1. United Arab Emirates Federal Law on the Regulation of the Spade Sector, No.(12)of 2019, Articles 1, 4, 14 and 18. Japanese Act on the Promotion of Business Activities for the Exploration and Development of Space Resources, Act No.83 of 2021, Articles 2, 3 and 5. Brazil Space Law, Federal Law of No.14946, 31 July 2024, Articles 2(12)and 3(9). Italian Law on Space Economy, No.89 of 2025, Articles 3, 4, 5 and 6.
- [2]Michael J. Listner, The Ownership and Exploitation of Outer Space:A Look at Foundational Law and Future Challenges to Current Claims, 1 Regent Journal of International Law 75(2003). Ricky J. Lee, Creating an International Regime for Property Rights under the Moon Agreement, 42 Proceedings of the IISL Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 409(1999). Mahulena Hofmann, Recent Plans to Exploit the Moon Resources under International Law, 47 Proceedings of the IISL Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 425(2004).
- [3]NASA Press Release, NASA Selects Companies to Collect Lunar Resources for Artemis Demonstrations, 3 December 2020,https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-collect-lunar-resources-for-artemis-demonstrations, visited 15 June 2025.
- [4]Michael Byers&Aaron Boley, Who Owns Outer Space?:International Law, Astrophysics, and the Sustainable Development of Space 131-132(Cambridge University Press 2023).
- [5]Walker A. Smith, Using the Artemis Accords to Build Customary International Law:A Vision for a U.S.-Centric Good Governance Regime in Outer Space, 86 Journal of Air Law and Commerce 663-664(2021).
- [6]Wilfred Jenks, The Conflict of Lawmaking Treaties, 37 British Yearbook of International Law 401-403(1953). Rüdiger Wolfrum&Volker R??ben, Developments of International Law in Treaty Making 417-586(Springer 2005).
- [7]John Griffiths, What Is Legal Pluralism?, 24 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 1(1986). Brain Z. Tamanaha, Understanding Legal Pluralism:Past to Present, Local to Global, 30 Sydney Law Review 375(2008).
- [1]Dinah Shelton, Normative Hierarchy in International Law, 2 American Journal of International Law 291-323(2006).
- [2]UNGA, Resolution 62/20, 15 June 2007, para.119.
- [3]Group of Governmental Experts, Report on Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of An Arms Race in Outer Space,GE-PAROS/2024/CRP.4, 23 August 2024, para.24.
- [4]Russian Federation Proposal on the Establishment of a Working Group on Potential Legal Models for Activities in Exploration,Exploitation and Utilization of Space Resources, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2021/CRP.26, 7 June 2021, para.2(c). Russian Federation, Input to the Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities, UN Doc. A/AC. 105/C. 2/2023/CRP. 20, 20 March 2023, sections 1 and 4.
- [5]United States, Submission to the UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee Working Group on the Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2023/CRP.37, 21 March 2023, Section 1.3.
- [6]UN General Assembly Resolutions, No First Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, UNGA, Resolution 6 9/32, 2 December2014; UNGA, Resolution 70/27, 7 December 2015; UNGA, Resolution 71/32, 5 December 2016; UNGA, Resolution 72/27, 4 December2017; UNGA, Resolution 73/31, 5 December 2018; UNGA, Resolution 74/22, 18 December 2019; UNGA, Resolution 75/37, 16 December2020; UNGA, Resolution 76/23, 8 December 2021; UNGA, Resolution 77/42, 12 December 2022; UNGA, Resolution 78/21, 4 December2023; UNGA, Resolution 79/20, 9 December 2024; UNGA, Resolution 80/20, 3 December 2025.
- [1]UN General Assembly Resolution, No First Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, UN, GA Resolution 80/20, 3 December2025, footnote 4.
- [2]UN General Assembly Resolution, Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, UNGA, Resolution 78/238, 22 December 2023, para.5.
- [3]UN General Assembly Resolutions, Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviors,UNGA, Resolution 75/36, 16 December 2020; UNGA, Resolution 76/231, 24 December 2021; UNGA, Resolution 78/20, 6 December 2023;UNGA, Resolution 79/22, 2 December 2024.
- [4]UN General Assembly Resolution, Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviors, UNGA, Resolution 78/20, 4 December 2023, para.4.
- [5]UN General Assembly Resolution, No Destructive Direct-Ascent Anti-Satellite Missile Testing, UNGA, Resolution 77/41, 12December 2022, para.1.
- [6]Ching W. Sooi, Direct Ascent Anti-Satellite Missile Tests:State Positions on the Moratorium, UNGA Resolution, and Lessons for the Future 11-32(Secure World Foundation 2023).
- [7]Group of Governmental Experts, Guiding Principles on Emerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons System, CCW/MSP/2019/9, Annex III, 13 December 2019. Report of the 2021 Session of the Group of Governmental Experts on Emerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, CCW/GGE.1/2021/3, 22 February 2022.
- [1]International Court of Justice, Advisory Opinion on Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, 8 July 1996, para.39.
- [2]Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security, Report of 24 June 2013, UN Doc. A/68/98, para.19; Report of 22 July 2015, UN Doc. A/70/174, paras.25, 26, 28(c).
- [3]The Woomera Manual on the International Law of Military Space Operations, Rule 21. Jack Beard&Dale Stephens, The Woomera Manual on the International Law of Military Space Operations 201-221(Oxford University Press 2024).
- [4]20世纪,反卫星武器主要指损毁卫星的地基导弹、在轨核武器和动能武器。UNIDIR, Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space:A Guide to the Discussions in the Conference on Disarmament, New York. 1991, p. 177.目前,反卫星武器覆盖所有对卫星进行敌对操作的技术和武器,包括以激光、微波、改变位置、网络攻击等非动能方式损害、干扰卫星运行(包括数据传送)的技术和武器。Almudena Azcárate Ortega&Victoria Samson, A Lexicon for Outer Space Security 27(UNIDIR 2023). Clayton Swope et al., Space Threat Assessment 2024, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2024.
- [5]Bill Boothby, Space Weapons and the Law, U.S. Naval War College International Law Studies Series 93, 2017. Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, GE-PAROS/2024/CRP.4,23 August 2024, para.23.
- [6]The Woomera Manual on the International Law of Military Space Operations, Rule 32. Jack Beard&Dale Stephens, The Woomera Manual on the International Law of Military Space Operations 309-311(Oxford University Press 2024).
- [7]UN International Law Commission, Draft Articles on Responsibility for Internationally Wrongful Acts, Article 2.
- [8]Berenice Boutin, Attribution of Conduct in International Military Operations:A Causal Analysis of Effective Control, 2 Melbourne Journal of International Law 160-178(2017).
- [1]International Court of Justice, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua, Judgement of 27 June 1986, para.115.
- [2]Du Li, Cyber-attacks on Space Activities:Revisiting the Responsibility Regime of Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty, 63Space Policy 2(2023).
- [3]Garret Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons:the Population Problem Has No Technical Solution; It Requires a Fundamental Extension in Morality, 80 Science 1243-1248(1968).
- [4]贾博亚、冯书兴、樊茂森:《国际社会防止外空“公地悲剧”的法规演变与立法展望》,《航天工程大学学报》2024年第8期,第11页。
- [5]Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons:The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action(Cambridge University Press1990). Brain C. Weeden&Tiffany Chow, Taking a Common-Pool Resources Approach to Space Sustainability:A Framework and Potential Policies, 28 Space Policy 166-172(2012). Joan Johnson-Freese&Brain C. Weeden, Application of Ostrom’s Principles for Sustainable Governance of Common-Pool Resources in Near-Earth Orbit, 3 Global Policy 72-81(2012).
- [6]International Court of Justice, Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, 1996, para.29. International Court of Justice, Judgment on The Gab??ikovo-Magymaros Project, 25 September 1997, para.53. International Court of Justice,Judgment concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay, 22 April 2010, para.204. International Law Commission, Draft Articles on Prevention of Transboundary Harm from Hazardous Activities:General Commentary, 2001, para.3.
- [7]Pierre-Marie Dupuy&Jorge E. Vi??uales, International Environmental Law 62-80(Cambridge University Press 2018).
- [8]U.S. Government Orbital Debris Mitigation Standard Practices(ODMSP), First Adopted in 1997 and Updated in 2019.
- [9]U.S. White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, National Orbital Debris Mitigation Plan, July 2022, p. 9.
- [10]Nicol Svárovská, Common but Differentiated Responsibilities for Space Debris Removal, 19 Astropolitics 1-17(2021). Arpit Gupta, Common but Differentiated Responsibility for Space Debris, Using Equitable Principles to Incentivize Debris Mitigation, 65 Proceedings of the IISL Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 309-313(2024).
- [1]Yongliang Yan, Application of the Principles of Common but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capabilities to the Passive Mitigation and Active Removal of Space Debris, 209 Acta Astronautica 117-131(2023).
- [2]如2005年比利时《外空法》、加拿大《遥感系统法》,2007年荷兰《外空法》、韩国《空间损害赔偿法》和德国《卫星数据安全法》,2008年日本《宇宙基本法》、法国《外空活动法》和《外空法》,2012年奥地利《外空活动法》,2016年丹麦《外空法》,2017年卢森堡《探索和利用外空资源法》和新西兰《外空和高海拔活动法》,2018年冰岛《外空法》和2021年日本《促进探索和开发外空资源商业活动法案》。UN Office for Outer Space Affairs, National Space Law Database, https://astro.unoosa.org/astro/en/index.html, visited 15June 2025.
- [3]Mark Somos, Selden’s Mare Clausum:The Secularization of International Law and the Rise of Soft Imperialism, 14 Journal of the History of International Law 287-330(2012).
- [4]陈一峰:《超越规则——国际法的论辩主义转向》,《北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2023年第1期,第162-174页。
- [5]NASA Artemis Accords, Section 10.2. The Hague Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resource Activities, Article 2. United States, Submission to the UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee Working Group on the Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities, UN Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/2023/CRP.37, 21 March 2023, Section 1.1.
- [1]International Law