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官方出口信贷是出口国为促进本国经济发展和增强出口竞争力,为本国出口商或外国进口商提供的一种中长期融资支持。官方出口买方信贷可能会因进口国反担保等方式转变成主权债务。历史上,由官方出口信贷引发的主权债务恶性增长是发展中国家债务危机加重的重要原因之一。官方出口信贷国际规则对发展中国家不可持续债务问题缺乏足够关注,由此导致相关规则未能平衡国家间竞争关系与借贷关系,同时也割裂了国家与市场之间的关系。官方出口信贷国际规则完善应考虑将主权债务可持续原则作为基本原则之一,借贷关系上融入“以我为主,合作共赢”理念,竞争关系上关注包容性发展;应考虑将“负责任主权借贷原则”融入《官方出口信贷安排》;另外,还应从场域、议题等方面做好构建新型债务可持续性官方出口信贷国际规则之准备。
Abstract:Official export credit is an important means for exporting countries to promote their own economic development by providing trade financing for domestic exporters or foreign importers. Official export buyer's credit can be transformed into the sovereign debt of developing countries through national counter-guarantees or other means. Historically, the malignant growth of sovereign debt caused by official export credit have been one of the important reasons for the exacerbation of debt crises in developing countries, which has also led to a vicious cycle in debt handling. The international governance of official export credit lacks sufficient attention to the unsustainable debt issues of developing countries, mainly manifested in the absence of development in the governance philosophy, which also directly leads to the governance rules failing to balance the competitive relations and lending relations between states, while also disconnecting the public-private relationship between the state and the market. The governance reform of officially supported export credit should consider incorporating the principle of sustainable sovereign debt into the governance basic principles, focusing on the development concept of inclusive competition in relations between countries, and integrating the concept of “taking myself as the main body, and win-win cooperation”in the relationship between the public and private sectors. In addition, governance rules should consider integrating the “Responsible Sovereign Borrowing Principle.” Furthermore, preparations should be made to construct new types of debt sustainability official export credit rules in terms of fields and issues.
[1] TXF Export Finance Data Report(2023), https://www.txfnews.com/articles/7647/Drilling-into-the-data-Export-finance-2023-report-out-now, visited 15 January 2025.
[2]本文主要聚焦于后者。
[3]中国出口信用保险公司编译:《演进中的君子协定——官方出口信贷国际规则的研究》,中国金融出版社2023年版,第5页。
[1]如无特别说明,本文主要关注发达国家对发展中国家的官方出口买方信贷问题。后文将不再对此进行赘述。
[2]联合国贸易和发展会议(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,UNCTAD)宏观经济和政治发展部主任阿纳斯塔西娅·涅斯韦塔洛娃曾表示,债务的不可持续性导致越来越多的发展中国家从债务困境走向债务违约,一场系统性债务危机即将来临,一场发展危机已经在酝酿之中。UN Trade and Development, UNCTAD Urges Reforms on Global Debt Architecture Amid Rsing Distress, https://unctad.org/news/unctad-urges-reforms-global-debt-architecture-amid-rising-distress, visited 15 January2025.
[3] IMF, Annual Report 2022, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ar/2022/in-focus/debt-dynamics/, visited 15 January 2025.
[4] UNCTAD, Trade Development Report—Growth, Debt, and Climate:Realigning the Global Financial Architecture,https://unctad.org/publication/trade-and-development-report-2023, visited 15 January 2025.
[5]中国出口信用保险公司编译:《演进中的君子协定——官方出口信贷国际规则的研究》,中国金融出版社2023年版,第71页。
[6]本文所指的主权债务主要是指国家作信用担保而产生的外债。
[7]徐佳君:《探寻改革优化官方出口信贷国际规则——新结构经济学的视角》,《海外投资与出口信贷》2024年第2期,第31-34页;陈沐阳:《对立还是趋同:试析发展融资领域的“美国方式”》,《美国研究》2022年第3期,第92-110页;陈沐阳:《从中日对比看后发国家的基础设施投融资》,《日本学刊》2020年第2期,第98-123页。
[8]杨洪:《国际法视野下的官方出口信贷——由WTO专家组裁决透视〈补贴与反补贴协定〉附件1第(k)项规定》,《环球法律评论》2007年第4期,第102-106页;余晓琴:《从〈补贴与反补贴措施协定〉看我国官方出口信贷利率的形成机制》,《当代财经》2005年第10期,第54-56页;李福胜、肖连魁:《WTO与我国官方支持的出口信贷:约束、空间与对策建议》,《国际金融研究》2003年第4期,第49-52页。
[9]以发展中国家为关注重点。
[1] United Nations General Assembly, Effects of Foreign Debt and Other Related International Financial Obligations of States on the Full Enjoyment of all Human Rights, Particularly Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, A/66/271, 2011.
[2] United Nations General Assembly, Effects of Foreign Debt and Other Related International Financial Obligations of States on the Full Enjoyment of all Human Rights, Particularly Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, A/66/271, 2011, para.12-13.
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[1]周玉渊:《发展中国家债务问题政治化的影响与反思》,《国际展望》2020年第12期,第88页。
[2] Jonathan Heard&Emmanuel T. Laryea, Export Credit Agencies, International Investment Law and the Spectre of Unsustainable Developing Countries’Debts, 29 African Journal of International and Comparative Law 634(2021).
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[1] ECA Watch, Climate Change, https://www.eca-watch.org/issues/climate-change, visited 15 January 2025.
[2] OECD Legal Instruments, Recommendation of the Council on Sustainable Lending Practices and Officially Supported Export Credits, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0442, visited 15 January 2025.
[3] United Nations General Assembly, Effects of Foreign Debt and Other Related International Financial Obligations of States on the Full Enjoyment of all Human Rights, Particularly Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, A/76/167, 2021, para.46.
[4]如未特别说明,本文将按照《安排》2024年最新修订版本进行介绍与论述,后文将不再对此作特别说明。最新版本的《安排》由正文64条和3个附件组成。正文分为四章,第一章是一般性约定,涉及《安排》的目的、地位以及适用范围。第二章涉及出口信贷的融资条款与条件,通过确立最低利率、最低保费、最大官方支持比例以及最长还款期限等融资条件较系统地对出口信贷进行规范。第三章主要涉及捆绑援助(TidAid)的规定。最后一部分是关于程序问题的规定,重点在于信息披露与透明度要求,确定缔约方之间事前通知和信息交换等内容。《安排》主要约束由政府或代表政府为货物和/或服务出口(包括融资租赁)提供的、还款期限在2年或2年以上的所有官方支持信贷。此种官方支持信贷涉及三种类型:一种是出口信用担保或保险(Export Credit Guarantee or Insurance);还有一种是官方融资支持(Official Financing Support),直接信贷/融资和再融资,或利率支持;第三种是混合模式,即前两种模式的混合体。《安排》在核电站、航空器、气候变化、船舶行业领域单独进行了行业规则谈判并发布了行业谅解并以附件形式存在于《安排》之下。这些行业谅解将官方出口信贷的最低价格、最大官方支持比例以及最长还款日期等按照行业的实际成果进行了细化与明确,清楚地界定了政府支持措施的种类以及信贷机构可向潜在借款人提供的最优惠条件及限制。OECD Legal Instruments, Arrangement on Officially Supported Export Credits, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-5005, visited 15 January 2025.
[5]涉及美国、澳大利亚、加拿大、日本、欧共体、希腊、葡萄牙、瑞士、西班牙以及北欧的瑞典、挪威、芬兰。
[6] Jacques de Lajugie, Soft Law, Hard Results, in OECD(ed.), The Export Credit Arrangement:Achievements and Challenges13(OECD Publishing 1998).
[1]朱杰进:《竞争性压力与制度互补性:构建中国制度型开放的政治经济学》,《国际政治研究》2024年第1期,第63页。
[2] I类是高收入的OECD成员;其他所有国家均属于第II类国家。
[3]中国出口信用保险公司编译:《演进中的君子协定——官方出口信贷国际规则的研究》,中国金融出版社2023年版,第36页。
[1]官方发展援助主要是指传统发达国家对一部分发展中国家提供各类发展支持,其以促进经济和社会发展为导向。
[2]郑宇:《援助有效性与新型发展合作模式构想》,《世界经济与政治》2017年第8期,第147页。
[3]捆绑援助由三个支柱组成:国家资格(Country Eligibility)、最低优惠水平(Minimum Concessionality Level)和项目资格(Project Eligibility Requirements)。在国家资格方面,根据世界银行统计,人均国民总收入连续两年超过中低收入国家上限的国家,不能获得附带援助(除非优惠至少达到80%)。关于项目资格,原则上要求捆绑援助不得扩展到商业上可行的公共或私人项目,该项要求考察因素包括该项目在财务上是否可行或者基于与其他参加国的协商结果能否作出合理的结论,认为该项目不可能按照市场条件或《安排》中的条件进行融资。关于最低优惠水平的要求,捆绑援助的优惠水平必须至少为:如果受惠国是最不发达国家,优惠水平不应低于50%;如果受惠国是有捆绑援助资格的国家而不是最不发达国家,则优惠水平不应低于35%,但此种优惠水平的上限是80%。不过,当该捆绑援助属于《安排》第31条所讲的“一揽子”联合融资方案时,不受80%上限的影响。
[1]主要是指与从捐助国采购商品或服务有关的混合信贷。
[2]陈沐阳:《对立还是趋同:试析发展融资领域的“美国方式”》,《美国研究》2022年第3期,第102-103页。
[3]郑宇:《援助有效性与新型发展合作模式构想》,《世界经济与政治》2017年第8期,第152页。
[4]陈沐阳:《对立还是趋同:试析发展融资领域的“美国方式”》,《美国研究》2022年第3期,第103页。
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[1]中国进出口银行是由国家出资设立、直属国务院领导、支持对外经济贸易投资发展与国际经济合作、具有独立法人地位的国有政策性银行。
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[4] J. C. Liao, The Club-based Climate Regime and OECD Negotiations on Restricting Coal-fired Power Export Finance, 12Global Policy 40-50(2021).
[5] IMF, What is Debt Sustainability?, https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2020/09/what-is-debt-sustainability-basics visited 15 January 2025;《经济改革政策和外债对充分享有所有人权的影响问题独立专家的报告》中将“债务可持续性”理解为如果一个国家没有足够的资源,无法在偿还债务的同时遵守核心最低标准人权,从人权角度来看,这种债务状况是不可持续的。United Nations General Assembly, Effects of Economic Reform Policies and Foreign Debt on the Full Enjoyment of All Human Rights, A/62/212, para.7.
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[7] D. S. Hakura, Back to Basics:What is Debt Sustainability?, https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/022/0057/003/article-A017-en.xml, visited 15 January 2025.
[1] United Nations General Assembly, Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development(Addis Ababa Action Agenda), A/RES/69/313.
[2] United Nations General Assembly, External Debt Sustainability and Development, A/RES/76/193.
[3] United Nations General Assembly, External Debt Sustainability and Development Report of the Secretary-General, A/68/203,p.38.
[4]李国安主编:《全球金融治理困境及其破解》,北京大学出版社2022年版,第95页。
[5]《关于以高水平开放推动服务贸易高质量发展的意见》,https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/202409/content_6971880.htm,2025年1月15日访问。
[6]《〈中国的对外援助〉白皮书》,http://www.cidca.gov.cn/2018-08/06/c_129925064.htm,2025年1月15日访问。
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[1] J. Vassard, A Global Regime for Export Credits in the New World(Dis)Order-Challenges of Multipolarity, in A. Klasen&F. Bannert(eds.), The Future of Foreign Trade Support 17(Wiley-Blackwell 2015).
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[1] United Nations General Assembly, Effects of Foreign Debt and Other Related International Financial Obligations of States on the Full Enjoyment of all Human Rights, Particularly Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, A/66/271, 2011, para.17.
[1]The White House Office of the Press Secretary,Joint Fact Sheet on Strengthening U.S.-China Economic Relations,2012,https://obamawhitchouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2012/02/14/joint-fact-sheet-strengthening-us-china-economic-relations,visited 15January 2025.
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[1] U.S. Department of the Treasury, Joint Statement on the Temporary Suspension of the Technical Negotiations in the International Working Group on Export Credits, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm1188, visited 15 January 2025.
[2]本文将在下文“议题选择”中讨论这个问题。
[3] UNCTAD, Debt at a Glance, https://unctad.org/publication/world-of-debt/dashboard, visited 15 January 2025.
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[6] United Nations General Assembly, External Debt Sustainability and Development, A/79/209.
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[2]陈镜先:《全球税收治理中联合国的作用:历史演进、现状分析与未来展望》,《国际税收》2024年第6期,第63页。
[3]徐凡、陈晶:《新型大国协调模式下提升中国全球金融治理能力的思考——基于G20与G7的比较视角》,《国际贸易》2021年第2期,第90-91页。
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[6]冯永琦、于欣晔:《后疫情时代全球金融治理体系建构与中国策略选择》,《东北亚论坛》2020年第6期,第51-64页。
[1]王钊、冯凯:《G20缓债实施受阻的原因探析:新旧债权国竞争抑或国际资本市场约束》,《国际经济评论》2022年第5期,第131-154页。
[2]主权债务生命周期将主权债务活动划分为五个阶段——获得融资和进入金融市场阶段、发行债务阶段、债务管理/追踪阶段、偿债还款阶段、债务解决或解决方案阶段。UNCTAD, Trade and Development Report 2023:Growth, Debt and Climate:Realigning the Global Financial Architecture, UNCTAD/TDR/2023.
[3] United Nations General Assembly, External Debt Sustainability and Development, A/77/206, p.12.
[4] EKN, Export and Investment Fund of Denmark(EIFO), Export Development Canada(EDC), Svensk Exportkredit(SEK),UK Export Finance.
[5] Seven Countries Launch International Coalition“Export Finance for Future”(E3F)to Align Export Finance with Climate Objectives,https://www.tresor.economie.gouv.fr/Articles/2021/04/14/seven-countries-launch-international-coalition-export-finance-for-futuree3-f-to-align-export-finance-with-climate-objectives, visited 15 January 2025.
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[1] United Nations General Assembly, Effects of Foreign Debt and Other Related International Financial Obligations of States on the Full Enjoyment of all Human Rights, Particularly Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, A/66/271.
[2] International Chamber of Commerce, Sustainability in Export Finance Leveraging Export Finance to Support the Delivery of the SDGs White Paper, https://iccwbo.org/news-publications/policies-reports/sustainability-in-export-finance/, visited 15 January 2025.
[3] 20世纪90年代中期,OECD开始关注出口信贷与环境问题,随即出台《官方出口信贷环境和社会尽职调查共同方法》。到21世纪初,OECD逐渐通过更新规则的方式尝试进行绿色转型。但是,其改革重点是推进可再生能源项目出口激励措施而非限制碳密集型出口。各国ECAs受市场导向性影响,需要贷款的发展中国家更倾向于选择碳强度高却低成本的能源项目(这也意味着对环境的影响更大),OECD的ECAs依旧支持煤炭和其他基于化石燃料的电力项目。目前最新版本的《安排》在删除《关于燃煤发电项目出口信贷行业谅解》后新增《气候变化行业谅解》。该谅解扩大有资格获得较长还款期限的绿色或气候友好型项目的范围。J.C Liao, The Club-based Climate Regime and OECD Negotiations on Restricting Coal-fired Power Export Finance, 12 Global Policy 40-50(2021).
[4][美]罗伯特·吉尔平:《世界政治中的战争与变革》,宋新宁、杜建平译,上海人民出版社2019年版,第152页。
[1]车丕照:《国际法的话语价值》,《吉林大学社会科学学报》2016年第6期,第39页。
基本信息:
DOI:10.13871/j.cnki.whuilr.2025.04.008
中图分类号:D996.2
引用信息:
[1]杨钊.主权债务治理视角下官方出口信贷国际规则的局限与完善[J].武大国际法评论,2025,9(04):138-158.DOI:10.13871/j.cnki.whuilr.2025.04.008.
基金信息:
国家社科基金项目(21VGQ001)的阶段性成果
2025-10-20
2025-10-20
2025-10-20